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Drift
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Order Number
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Title
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Author
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Date
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A Review of CTI Work on the Measurement of Cooling Tower Drift Loss (TP-68A)
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John C. Campbell
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1969
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Abstract:
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Control of Cooling Tower Mist (TP-87A)
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R.H. Maurer, Celanese Chemical Company
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1970
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Abstract:
Regulation I of the Texas Air Control Board stipulates that mist
emitted from cooling towers shall not cause a highway visibility
hazard. At the time this regulation became effective we did not have a
solution to our intermittent visibility problem, although this problem
had been under study for about two years. We filed an application to
obtain a variance from the board until we could find a satisfactory
solution and put it into effect. The variance was granted. The board
proved to be very helpful in that they suggested we contact
Atlantic-Richfield, who had solved a problem similar to ours. This
paper reveals our findings.
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Cooling Tower Drift Its Measurement, Control and Environmental Effects (TP-107A)
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G.K. Wistrom & J.C. Ovard, Ecodyne Cooling Products Co.
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1973
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Abstract:
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Atmospheric Effects of Water Cooling Facilities (TP-107B)
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Eric Aynsley, Particle Data Laboratories, Ltd. & James E. Carson, Argonne
National Laboratory
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1973
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Abstract:
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Analytical Determination of Cooling Tower Drift Eliminators Efficiencies (TP108A)
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R.E. Grimble, Westinghouse Research & Development Labs, & A. Roffman,
Westinghouse Environmental Systems Dept.
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1973
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Abstract:
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Predictions of Drift Deposition From Salt Water Cooling Towers (TP-109A)
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A. Roffman, Westinghouse Environmental Systems Dept., R.E. Grimble, Westinghouse
Research & Development Labs
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1973
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Abstract:
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Cooling Tower Plumes - Defined and Traced by Means of Computer Simulation Models (TP-115A)
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W.G. England, L.H. Teuscher & J.R. Taft, Systems, Science & Software
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1973
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Abstract:
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The Generation of Visible Plumes by Wet/Dry Cooling Towers (T-123A)
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Robert J. Biese, Ms.M.D.,P.E., Gilbert Associates, Inc.
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1974
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Abstract:
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On the Question of Airborne Transmission of Pathogenic Organisms in Cooling Tower Drift (T-124A)
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B.G. Lewis, Argonne National Laboratory
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1974
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Abstract:
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Drift - Modeling and Monitoring Comparisons (T-175A)
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Norbert C.J. Chen, Oak Ridge National Lab., Steven R. Hanna, Air Resources
Laboratory
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1977
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Abstract:
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Cooling Tower Drift Studies at the Paducah, Kentucky Gaseous Diffusion Plant (T-213A)
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Fred G. Taylor & Patricia D. Parr, Oak Ridge National Lab., Steven R. Hanna,
AirResources Lab
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1979
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Abstract:
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Cooling Tower Drift Study - Drift Measurement and Analysis of the Measuring Technique (T-232A)
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Shin H. Park, Union Carbide
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1981
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Abstract:
Cooling towers at the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant have
been studied for many years. The drift rate and spectrum of
droplets have been measured with all existing techniques.
Results show that the sensitive paper technique is still the
most reliable method.
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Comparison of Methods For Measurement of Cooling Tower Drift (T-85-06)
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M.W. Golay, W.J. Glantschnig & F.T. Best, Dept. of Nuclear Engr., Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
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1985
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Abstract:
A comparison of methods to measure cooling tower drift was
performed at MIT, with participants from Belgium, the U.S. and
the Federal Republic of Germany. The test environments differed
according to droplet mass flux, droplet size distribution and
gas speed. Cases tested included both mechanical and natural
draft cooling tower environments. Among the instruments tested
are the pulsed laser light scattering system (PILLS), sensitive
paper and other sensitive surface droplet impaction systems,
isokinetic drift mass flux measurement systems and photographic
systems. The instruments tested varied widely in their
capabilities, with droplet sizing instruments being more
effective in low load, small droplet size spectrum situations,
and isokinetic mass and chemical assay techniques being most
accurate in high load, large droplet distribution cases.
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Comprehensive Drift Measurements on a Circular Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower (TP-86-01)
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Karl Wilber, Environmental Systems Corp., & Ken Vercauteren, Arizona Public
Serv.
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1986
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Abstract:
Comprehensive drift measurements were made on multiple cells of
a circular crossflow mechanical draft-cooling tower. The data
include both Isokinetic mineral mass flux determinations and
liquid droplet flux and sizing determinations using a sensitive
paper methodology. Cell to cell variations are presented along
with the results of repeatability measurements. Additionally
updraft air velocity and waterflow measurement results are
provided. The importance of specific ambient mineral
concentration measurements vis-à-vis cooling tower exit
plane concentrations is discussed in concert with data on five
tracer elements. Data from this tower are presented and compared
with those of other towers that were also subjects of
comprehensive drift measurements programs.
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An Economical Solution to Cooling Tower Drift (T-87-08)
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George C. Pedersen, P.E., Kimre, Inc., V. Keith Lamkin, P.E., Engineered Processes,
Inc., & Mike Seich, Dow Chemical Co.
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1987
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Abstract:
General introduction to cooling tower drift, including its
effects on structural steel (corrosion) and lost costs of water
and chemicals. Various solutions including the high velocity
designs and the Kimre drift eliminator are analyzed for cost
effectiveness. Case histories are provided from Dow Chemical
that outlines results of Kimre units in operation for 1½
-2 years.
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Comparison of Two Isokinetic Drift Measurement Methods (TP-90-12)
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Paul Lindahl & O.L. Kinney, The Marley Cooling Tower Co.
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1990
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Abstract:
A recent major cooling tower installation included a requirement
for a very low drift rate guarantee and testing by the EPA stack
gas sampling method 13A, modified on cooling tower application,
and significant scatter in results have been reported. A study
was commissioned with both Environmental Systems Corporation and
Midwest Research Institute to conduct modified Method 13A, tests
over a variety of eliminators. The tests were conducted under
carefully controlled laboratory conditions in a large
counterflow test cell. The results will be presented and
compared to results from the same test cell using a 4th
generation hot bead/filter pack isokinetic sampling systems.
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Reduction of Cooling Tower PM10 Emissions Due to Drift Eliminator Modifications at a Chemical Refining Plant (TP-92-10)
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Thomas E. Weast, P.E. & Nicholas M. Stich, Midwest Research Institute, &
Gordon Israelson, P.E., Westinghouse Electric Corporation
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1992
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Abstract:
Separate isokinetic EPA Method 13A and heated cascade impactor
tests were performed on three cooling towers before and after
drift eliminator modifications. The modifications consisted of
installation of Munters D-15 eliminators over the existing
eliminators. The reduction of drift and corresponding mineral
mass emissions was about 80%.
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Plume Abatement and Water Conservation With The Wet/Dry Cooling Tower (TP-93-01)
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Paul A. Lindahl, & Randall W. Jameson, The Marley Cooling Tower Company
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1993
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Abstract:
A review is presented of alternative wet/dry tower
configurations for plume abatement and water conservation. The
design basis of each general type is discussed both in terms of
psychrometrics and the physical configuration. Considerations
for specifiers of wet/dry towers for plume abatement and water
conservation are presented, including the design point basis,
selection of the design point, methods of testing to verify the
guarantee and other physical design factors.
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Simultaneous Comparison of the CTI HBIK and the EPA Method 13A Isokinetic Drift Test Procedures
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Michael R. Whittemore, Brentwood Industries, Inc., & Thomas E. Weast, Midwest
Research Institute
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1993
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Abstract:
Cooling tower drift is defined as the percent of circulating
water flow that exits from the cooling tower fan stack in the
form of fine water droplets and aerosols entrained in the
exhaust air. For cooling tower drift tests, the CTI recommended
heated Bead Isokinetic (HBIK) procedure is the most commonly
used procedure and is close to being accepted as a code by CTI,
whereas regulators prefer the EPA Method 13A procedure. In
theory both procedures (if properly operated, recovered and
analyzed), should give the same results. This paper examines and
compares the two-isokinetic methods and their proper operation,
recovery and analysis so as to obtain accurate and repeatable
results. The testing services of Midwest Research Institute
(MRI) were retained by Brentwood Industries, Inc. to conduct a
series of 18 drift tests by using both the CTI recommended HBIK
drift test procedure and the EPA Method 13A drift test
procedure. The tests were conducted simultaneously using both
test procedures on two types of Brentwood drift eliminators at
two water loadings and several air velocities at the Ceramic
Cooling Tower Company's test facility located in Fort Worth,
Texas. The drift from the test cell was determined by
isokinetically sampling a representative fraction of the test
cell airflow above the drift eliminators. Lithium was added to
the test cell circulating water prior to starting the series of
tests to serve as an analysis tracer. Inductively coupled argon
plasma spectroscopy (ICP), an extremely sensitive detection
technique, was then used to measure the concentration of lithium
in the circulating water and in the collected drift samples. The
total drift rates were calculated from the ratio of the
concentration of the lithium in the sampling train to the
concentration of the lithium in the circulating water. The CTI
HBIK and the EPA 13A methods of isokinetic drift collection were
found to yield nearly identical results in the series of tests.
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Drift Testing - Scale Up From Test Cell To Field Acceptance Test
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David Brill, Black & Veatch Joe H. Lander, Florida Power Corp.
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1994
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Abstract:
In 1989 Florida Power Corporation (FPC) agreed to install
helper-cooling towers at their Crystal River Generating Station
to cool circulating water discharged to the Golf of Mexico. As a
result of agreements with the environmental agencies a maximum
allowable helper cooling tower drift rate of 0.002 percent was
required, including compliance field-testing. An R&D
drift-testing program was conducted in 1990 in a cooling tower
test cell to confirm that the drift rate limit would be
achievable when field-tested using EPA Method 5. The helper
towers are now in commercial operation and recent field drift
testing has validated the results of the R&D program.
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Drift Eliminators and Fan System Performance
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Dr. Bryan R. Becker, P.E., Assoc. Professor of Mechanical Engr., Univ. of Missouri,
Larry F. Burdick, P.E. Project Engineer, The Marley Cooling Tower Co.
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1994
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Abstract:
To achieve peak cooling tower operating efficiency, it is
desirable that losses in fan system performance due to the drift
eliminators be minimized. Therefore, an experimental program was
developed and executed to evaluate the effect of drift
eliminator design on cooling tower fan system performance. Flow
visualization studies were used to gain insight into the flow
patterns within the cooling tower plenum. A fully instrumented
fan test was used to investigate the effects upon fan system
performance resulting from two different styles of drift
eliminators.
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Predictions of the Plume From a Cooling Tower
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Kazutaka Takata, Kiyoshi Nasu, Hiroyuki Yoshikawa, Shinko Pantec Co., Ltd.
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1996
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Abstract:
A visible plume from a cooling tower is sometimes considered to
be a nuisance such as an icing and/or a barrier for visibility
and sunshine. Prediction of the behaviors of a visible plume is
expected to be accomplished. In this work, the plume has been
predicted using computational fluid dynamics. Computational
results are capable of reproducing the main feature of the
plume. The length, width and volume of a plume in various
conditions agree well with the measured ones. Although the
present simulation could not represent the small behaviors of
turbulent flow, this method is considered to become a useful
tool to normalize the scale of plume.
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Cooling Tower Plume Abatement at Chicago's O'Hare Airport
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J.D. (Doug) Randall, P.E., Marley Cooling Tower, Michael C. Long, P.E., Black &
Veatch, Romesh K. Kansal, P.E., Dept. of Aviation, City of Chicago
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1998
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Abstract:
A recently completed project at Chicago's O'Hare Airport makes
an interesting case study in the application and design of plume
abated cooling towers. Expansion of the airport had resulted in
cooling towers being located between the FAA control tower and
one of the taxiways. Visible plume from these towers was
obstructing the vision of pilot on the taxiway, and blocking the
line of sight between the control tower and the taxiway. The
solution to this problem was to build a new plume abated cooling
tower at the site. Design/plume abatement requirements, site
restrictions, maintenance and operational flexibility were a few
of the many issues involved in the planning and implementation
of this project.
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The Relationship Between SP and HGBIK Drift Measurement Results - New Data Creates a Need for a Second Look
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Jack R. Missimer, Ph.D., P.E. David E. Wheeler, P.E., Kenneth W. Hennon, Power
Generation Technologies
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1998
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Abstract:
The CTI drift measurement code ATC-140 specifies that isokinetic
measurements be employed for cooling tower drift emissions
measurements. The sensitive paper techniques, an alternative
method also referenced by the test code, provide additional
information not supplied by the Isokinetic test procedure. There
have been few occasions; over the years when both the Sensitive
paper and HGBIK drift measurement techniques have been employed
at the same location. This has allowed only periodic comparisons
of the results of the two techniques. Both methods were employed
at the same location during a recent test program. The results
create an opportunity to revisit some of the traditionally held
views of the expected relationships between the results of the
two techniques. This paper compares the data supplied by each
method as well as the drift rates measured by each. This paper
also addresses issues relevant to the determination of the rate
of the efflux from cooling towers of chemicals entrained in the
drift.
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A Non-Metallic Air Cooled Heat Exchanger for Cooling Tower Plume Reduction
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David M. Suptic, The Marley Cooling Tower Company
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1999
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Abstract:
Siting of industrial manufacturing complexes and power plants
close to municipalities and highways often presents numerous
obstacles related to cooling tower plume formation. Cooling
tower plume formation can be a safety or aesthetic concern.
Traditional methods to eliminate the plume employ a hybrid
technology of air-cooled steel coils in tandem with the
evaporative section of the cooling tower. While effective, these
systems have been costly. New non-metallic heat exchanger
technologies allows for a lower cost alternative as well as
fouling and clog resistance, lower weight and corrosion
resistance. Such technology allows for greater plant siting
flexibility.
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Cooling Tower Emissions Quantification Using The Cooling Technology Institute Test Code ATC-140
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Ken Hennon and David Wheeler, Power Generation Technologies
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2003
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Abstract:
Evaporative cooling towers serve the heat rejection needs of a
wide variety of industries. In a typical cooling loop, water is
pumped through a steam condenser, chiller, or heat exchanger to
a cooling tower, which rejects the heat to the atmosphere. In
the majority of cooling towers, a fan on the top of the tower is
used to induce an air stream against the falling water droplets.
As the air comes in contact with the water, a small fraction of
the water droplets are entrained in the exiting airstream.
Baffles called drift eliminators are placed between the nozzles
and the fan to minimize (through inertial impaction) the amount
of entrained water droplets that are discharged into the
atmosphere. The escaping droplets are called drift. An important
distinction between drift and the normally visible condensing
plume is that the drift contains the same chemicals and solids
present in the circulating water, whereas the condensation is
pure water vapor. Cooling tower emission rates are usually
presented as a Drift Fraction which is defined as the ration of
the water exiting the tower as drift divided by the circulating
water flow rate. This paper discusses drift testing methods, the
current state-of-the-art drift emission guarantees, and tower
specifics that contribute to increased drift emissions.
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An Economic Solution to Cooling Tower Drift
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G.C. Pederson and Frank Power Kimre, Inc.
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2005
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Abstract:
General introduction to cooling tower drift, including its effects on
structural steel (corrosion) and lost costs of water and chemicals.
Various solutions including the high velocity designs and the Kimre
drift eliminator are analyzed for cost effectiveness.
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A Review of Drift Eliminator Performance
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William C. Miller, Timothy E. Krell, Brentwood Industries, Inc
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2006
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Abstract:
Drift eliminators and the technology behind them continue to evolve as
drift specifications grow more stringent and tower operators strive
for the best performing products available to the marketplace. As
such, the choice of best product for th application becomes more
critical. One important aspect of drift performance is the pressure
loss characteristic of a drift eliminator and the difference between
dry and wet measurements. The differences between various eliminator
configurations highlight the benefits of new technology and theory
applied to drift eliminators to achieve the best performance and lower
pressure drop. This yields continued improvements for the tower
operator.
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Meteorological Considerations in the Design of Plume Abated Cooling Towers
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Ken Hennon and David Wheeler, CleanAir Engineering
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2009
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Abstract:
Cooling towers are often located in areas where a visible plume is objectionable. In such situations, a plume abated cooling tower is frequently specified to alleviate the perceived problem. The paper discusses the use of fogging frequency analysis to examine alternative designs of plume abatement systems and the selection of the psychometric design point that defines the envelope of conditions in which a visible plume or fog is produced. This paper also examines the limits of plume abatement technology to reduce the frequency of visible plumes. The type of meteorological information to be used as design basis for plume abated cooling towers is specified.
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A Digital Method for Analyzing Droplets on Sensitive Paper
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Dudley Benton, McHale & Associates
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2009
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Abstract:
Sensitive paper has long been used to detect droplet impingement in several processes including drieft measurement. Identifying, counting, and measure the individual droplets has been a tedious, labor-intensive task involving microscopic examination and statistical extrapolation, seeing as counting all the droplets has previously been impractical. Digital techniques now in common use however, can reduce this previously labor-intensive task to a rather simple one of graphical data screening. Furthermore, all the droplets are included in the statistical sampling, reducing the uncertainty of the results. The conventional (manual/optical) and digital methods are compared for actual samples as well as the effort and equipment involved.
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